Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University Hyderabad B.Tech II DEVELOPMENT OF MINERAL DEPOSITS Previous Question Paper (August/September - 2022 - R18)

The history of mining spans from the prehistoric era to the modern industrial age, evolving through distinct technological milestones. It began in the Stone Age with the extraction of flint and obsidian for tools and weapons. During the Bronze and Iron Ages, mining expanded to extract copper, tin, and iron ores to support metallurgy. The Roman period introduced advanced techniques such as fire-setting, hydraulic mining (hushing), and the use of water wheels for dewatering mines. The Middle Ages saw the development of deep-shaft mining and the use of gunpowder for blasting, which revolutionized rock fragmentation. The Industrial Revolution in the 18th and 19th centuries marked a turning point with the introduction of steam power for hoisting and pumping, followed by the 20th century's shift toward large-scale mechanization, open-pit mining, and sophisticated mineral processing technologies.

The evaluation of mining in India has progressed from small-scale artisanal operations to a highly regulated, technology-driven industry. This evolution is categorized into three phases: the Pre-Independence era, characterized by limited extraction; the Post-Independence era, marked by the nationalization of coal and the establishment of public sector undertakings (PSUs); and the Liberalization era (post-1991), which introduced private investment and modern exploration technologies.

The distribution of mineral deposits in India is geographically uneven and structurally controlled:

• Peninsular Shield (Cratons): The Dharwar, Bastar, and Singhbhum cratons are rich in metallic minerals like iron ore, manganese, gold, and copper, associated with ancient greenstone belts.
• Gondwana Basins: These sedimentary basins, primarily in the Damodar, Mahanadi, and Godavari valleys, contain the vast majority of India's coal reserves.
• Tertiary Formations: These regions, particularly in the northeastern states and parts of Rajasthan, are significant for petroleum, natural gas, and lignite deposits.
• Coastal and Offshore Areas: These regions are crucial for placer deposits, including ilmenite, rutile, and monazite sands, as well as offshore hydrocarbon exploration.