JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY HYDERABAD B.Pharmacy I Year PATHOPHYSIOLOGY Previous Question Paper (June - 2022 - R17)

Atrophy is the decrease in the size of cells, resulting in the reduction of tissue or organ size. Example: Muscle wasting due to disuse or immobilization.

Hypertrophy is an increase in the size of cells, leading to an increase in the size of the organ, often in response to increased workload. Example: Cardiac muscle enlargement in hypertension.

Hyperplasia is an increase in the number of cells in an organ or tissue, often resulting in increased mass. Example: Proliferation of glandular epithelium in the female breast during puberty or pregnancy.

Metaplasia is a reversible change in which one adult cell type is replaced by another adult cell type better suited to withstand a stressful environment. Example: Squamous metaplasia of the respiratory epithelium in smokers.

Dysplasia is an alteration in the size, shape, and organization of cellular components, often considered a precursor to cancer. Example: Cervical intraepithelial neoplasia.

Metabolic acidosis is a clinical disturbance characterized by a primary decrease in serum bicarbonate (HCO₃⁻) concentration, leading to a decrease in blood pH. Metabolic alkalosis is a primary increase in serum bicarbonate concentration, resulting in an elevated blood pH. Respiratory acidosis results from the retention of carbon dioxide (CO₂) due to hypoventilation, lowering blood pH. Respiratory alkalosis is caused by excessive loss of CO₂ due to hyperventilation, raising blood pH.

The body maintains pH balance through several buffer systems:

• Bicarbonate-carbonic acid buffer system
• Phosphate buffer system
• Protein buffer system (including hemoglobin)