JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY HYDERABAD
JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY HYDERABAD Pharm. D I Year HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY Previous Question Paper (June/July - 2019 - R08)
Answer any five questions
All questions carry equal marks
Main
Define coagulation. List out the various clotting factors and explain in detail the clotting process.
Answer
Coagulation, or blood clotting, is the physiological process by which blood changes from a liquid state to a semi-solid gel to prevent blood loss from damaged vessels. It involves a complex cascade of enzymatic reactions leading to the conversion of soluble fibrinogen into insoluble fibrin threads.
There are 13 recognized clotting factors, typically designated by Roman numerals:
- Factor I: Fibrinogen
- Factor II: Prothrombin
- Factor III: Tissue Thromboplastin (Tissue Factor)
- Factor IV: Calcium ions (Ca2+)
- Factor V: Proaccelerin
- Factor VI: (Unassigned/obsolete)
- Factor VII: Proconvertin
- Factor VIII: Antihemophilic factor
- Factor IX: Christmas factor
- Factor X: Stuart-Prower factor
- Factor XI: Plasma thromboplastin antecedent
- Factor XII: Hageman factor
- Factor XIII: Fibrin stabilizing factor
The clotting process occurs in three main stages:
- Formation of Prothrombin Activator: This occurs via two pathways. The extrinsic pathway is triggered by tissue trauma releasing tissue factor (Factor III), while the intrinsic pathway is activated by contact with damaged vessel endothelium or collagen. Both pathways converge to activate Factor X, which combines with Factor V and calcium to form the prothrombin activator complex.
- Conversion of Prothrombin to Thrombin: In the presence of the prothrombin activator and calcium ions, the inactive plasma protein prothrombin (Factor II) is converted into the active enzyme thrombin.
- Formation of Fibrin Mesh: Thrombin acts as an enzyme to convert soluble fibrinogen (Factor I) into insoluble fibrin monomers. These monomers polymerize to form a loose mesh. Finally, Factor XIII (fibrin stabilizing factor) is activated by thrombin to cross-link the fibrin strands, creating a stable, dense clot that traps blood cells and platelets to seal the wound.
Explain the conduction system of heart with a neat labelled diagram.
Answer
The conduction system of the heart is a specialized network of cardiac muscle cells that initiate and distribute electrical impulses, ensuring coordinated contraction of the atria and ventricles. The sequence of conduction is as follows:
- Sinoatrial (SA) Node: Located in the right atrial wall near the opening of the superior vena cava, it acts as the natural pacemaker, generating impulses at a rate of 60-100 beats per minute.
- Atrioventricular (AV) Node: Situated in the interatrial septum, it receives the impulse from the SA node. It introduces a critical delay of approximately 0.1 seconds to allow the atria to complete their contraction and empty blood into the ventricles.
- Bundle of His (Atrioventricular Bundle): The impulse travels from the AV node into the interventricular septum, serving as the only electrical connection between the atria and ventricles.
- Right and Left Bundle Branches: The Bundle of His divides into two branches that course down the interventricular septum toward the apex of the heart.
- Purkinje Fibers: These fibers emerge from the bundle branches and spread throughout the ventricular myocardium, causing rapid depolarization and coordinated ventricular contraction (systole).
Diagram description: A schematic of the heart shows the SA node in the superior right atrium, the AV node at the junction of the atria and ventricles, the Bundle of His extending into the septum, and Purkinje fibers branching throughout the ventricular walls.
Define the terms – Hypertension, Congestive heart failure.
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Discuss the anatomy of respiratory system with a neat labelled diagram.
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Discuss the functions of eye, ear, skin, tongue and nose.
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Explain the process of digestion.
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Classify the nervous system. Explain in detail any two spinal cord reflexes.
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Draw the structure of kidney and label it, mention its functions.
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Explain the role of RAA system in kidney.
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Explain in detail the physiology of hearing.
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Discuss the functions of any three pituitary hormones.
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Discuss the events in the process of menstrual cycle.
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